Radiation

Ultraviolet (UV) rays in sunlight give rise to basal-cell carcinoma, squamous-cell carcinoma, and malignant melanoma of the skin. The carcinogenic activity of UV radiation is attributable to the formation of pyrimidine dimers in DNA. Pyrimidine dimers are structures that form between two of the four nucleotide bases that make up DNA — the nucleotides cytosine and thymine, which are members of the chemical family called pyrimidines. If a pyrimidine dimer in a growth regulatory gene is not immediately repaired, it can contribute to tumour development.

The risk of developing UV-induced cancer depends on the type of UV rays to which one is exposed (UV-B rays are thought to be the most dangerous), the intensity of the exposure, and the quantity of protection that the skin cells are afforded by the natural pigment melanin. Fair-skinned persons exposed to the sun have the highest incidence of melanoma because they have the least amount of protective melanin.

It is likely that UV radiation is a complete carcinogen — that is, it can initiate and promote tumour growth — just as some chemicals are.

Ionizing radiation, both electromagnetic and particulate, is a powerful carcinogen, although several years can elapse between exposure and the appearance of a tumour. The contribution of radiation to the total number of human cancers is probably small compared with the impact of chemicals, but the long latency of radiation-induced tumours and the cumulative effect of repeated small doses make precise calculation of its significance difficult.

The carcinogenic effects of ionizing radiation first became apparent at the turn of the 20th century with reports of skin cancer in scientists and physicians who pioneered the use of X rays and radium. Some medical practices that used X rays as therapeutic agents were abandoned because of the high increase in the risk of leukemia. The atomic explosions in Japan at Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 provided dramatic examples of radiation carcinogenesis.

After an average latency period of seven years, there was a marked increase in leukemia, followed by an increase in solid tumours of the breast, lung, and thyroid. A similar increase in the same types of tumours was observed in areas exposed to high levels of radiation after the Chernobyl disaster in Ukraine in 1986. Electromagnetic radiation is also responsible for cases of lung cancer in uranium miners in central Europe and the Rocky Mountains of North America.